Phylum Porifera

Renata Manconi , Roberto Pronzato , in Thorp and Covich'southward Freshwater Invertebrates (Fourth Edition), 2015

Anatomy and Physiology

Porifera possess no head and no tail; they are basal metazoans characterized by the absenteeism of true tissues (with few exceptions), a muscular or nervous organisation sensu stricto, a digestive crenel, and gonads. The torso compages (Figure 8.11) is arranged effectually the aquiferous organisation, which consists of a network of canals and chambers (in the complex, leucon-blazon organization of freshwater sponges) with flowing ambience h2o.

Figure 8.eleven. The trunk architecture and the aquiferous system of a sponge.

 Figure below: modified from Boury-Esnault and Rützler (1997).

An external layer of apartment cells (pinacoderm), pierced with small inhalant apertures (ostia) and larger exhalant apertures (oscula), isolates the sponge internal construction (mesohyl) from the external environment (Figure 8.11). The mesohyl includes an extracellular matrix with the consistency of jelly, collagen fibrils and fibers, skeletal structures with mineral deposits (spicules), and cells. Most trunk cells are totipotent, with a high degree of mobility and morpho-functional plasticity. The master sponge prison cell categories are cells lining outer and inner surfaces, cells secreting the skeleton (organic and inorganic), contractile cells, totipotent ameboid cells, and cells with inclusions (Effigy viii.11).

The internal flagellated choanoderm bears a monolayer of choanocytes lining filtering chambers (Figure 8.12). Choanocytes are specialized cells characterized by a collar of cytoplasmic microvilli with a central flagellum actively driving a unidirectional water current from the inhalant sponge surface (ostia) through the entire trunk up to the exhalant apertures (oscula).

FIGURE 8.12. The choanocyte is the typical feeding jail cell of Porifera. These flagellated cells are able to produce water menstruation within the aquiferous organisation and catch very small (a few micrometers) suspended organic particles or bacteria. Ingested nutrient is then transferred to mobile archeocytes.

The aquiferous system (Figure eight.11) is involved in the product and maintenance of water current flow within the sponge body. Its morpho-functional role is devoted to supporting feeding by pinocytosis/phagocytosis, together with excretion and O2/CO2 exchanges occurring past uncomplicated diffusion. To control osmotic pressure level, all cells accept to expel excess h2o. The system consists of inhalant and exhalant openings at the sponge surface (ectosome), with respective canals connecting these openings to the filtering chambers (choanosome). Incurrent water, with nutrients, flows from the h2o column into the inhalant openings and canal network up to the choanocytic chambers. Filtered water flows toward the surface along the exhalant culvert organisation and oscules. The management of the flow of ambience water is from dermal pores through an inhalant culvert to a choanocyte bedroom, and and then out an exhalant culvert and osculum.

A skeleton with inorganic and organic components supports the sponge body. The inorganic skeleton, equally in the entire class Demospongiae, is made of siliceous (hydrated silicon dioxide [SiO2]) structures named spicules (Effigy viii.one); their secretion by sclerocytes occurs by silica deposition in layers around an axial organic filament (axiomatic by transparency upon light microscopy (LM)). The organic skeleton is equanimous of an extremely variable corporeality of collagenous material, which is structured as a network of spongin fibers or dispersed in the intercellular matrix. Spongin in the grade of fibrils and fibers is an apomorphic trait of the phylum Porifera. Also, the skeleton of gemmules is made of spongin armed by siliceous spicules (gemmuloscleres). Chitin, a polysaccharide, besides occurs in the inner layer of the gemmular theca (Simpson, 1984).

During cryptobiosis (dormancy), the beefcake of sponges consists of skeleton remains and gemmules, small subspherical or emispherical to elliptical structures bearing a protective theca (Effigy 8.10). The gemmular theca architecture is reinforced by species-specific spicules (gemmuloscleres) and functions to protect totipotent/staminal cells (thesocytes) with their energetically rich yolk platelets. The theca is mono- to bi- or tri-layered (outer, medium, and inner layers) and is made of laminar and/or trabeculate to fibrous spongin to class the pneumatic layer. 2 types of gemmules with diverging morpho-functional roles are produced in the same individual (Manconi and Desqueiroux-Faundez, 1999; Manconi and Pronzato, 2004). Gemmuloscleres are tangential to the surface or embedded (radially to tangentially) in the gemmular theca. Gemmuloscleres are absent in some species. At the theca surface, i (foramen) or more apertures (foramina) let cells migration toward the substratum during gemmular hatching (Penney and Racek, 1968; Volkmer-Ribeiro, 1979, 1986; Weissenfels, 1984; Manconi and Pronzato, 2002, 2009). The shape, position, and orientation of foramen are variable.

Product of gemmules is triggered past environmental factors such as decreased temperature or depression water level (desiccation) and involves cell assemblage of thesocytes and the construction of the gemmular theca (Cruel, 1974, 1995; Pronzato and Manconi, 1994a, 1995; Loomis, 2010).

Thesocytes are characterized by low metabolic action and inhibition of jail cell partition to survive disquisitional ecology conditions. In some species, thesocytes display a state of diapause, metabolic abort controlled by endogenous factors. The persistence of high osmotic concentration (due to polyols) maintains metabolic depression and turns off jail cell division. Subsequently exposure to unfavorable conditions, cells shift from diapause into quiescence in which metabolic depression is controlled by environmental factors. Transition to quiescence requires the conversion of polyols to glycogen, reducing the osmotic concentration early in the germination process, and the occurrence of favorable conditions to trigger gemmular germination reestablishes an agile sponge (Cruel, 1974, 1995; Loomis, 2010). The latter stage is followed by cell differentiation and production ex novo of extracellular matrix and the siliceous/proteinaceous skeleton. Reinvasion of the old skeleton of the female parent sponge, if persistent, could also occur past proliferating cells.

High levels of phenotypic plasticity characterize sponges (Manconi and Pronzato, 1991; Gaino et al., 1995; Hill and Hill, 2002), a status typically restricted to embryonic development in nigh Metazoa. The extreme adjustability and plasticity of sponges are supported by exclusive, typical traits: (a) all cell types are able to modify their morphology and physiology and move freely in the extracellular matrix, being absent cells junctions in nearly cellular types; (b) gametes derive directly from somatic cells past diffused gametogenesis; and (c) morphological traits and behavior are extremely plastic. The concept of plasticity in sponges matches all organization levels from the cell to the population (Gaino et al., 1995; Pronzato and Manconi, 1995).

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Porifera (Sponges)

M.S. Loma , A.50. Hill , in Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, 2009

Ecology

Porifera represent an important faunal group of most aquatic communities. Sponges are known to be aggressive competitors for space ( Figure 1 ) and tin can overgrow and impale other benthic organisms. Important density-mediated indirect furnishings arise when predators consume sponges because removal of superior space competitors by spongivores benefits slower growing sessile organisms. As mentioned previously, sponges are highly efficient filter feeders and are major consumers of the ultraplankton. In turn, sponges represent an important food source for a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate predators. In freshwater habitats, sponges are consumed by a number of insects. For example, certain caddisflies (Trichoptera: Leptoceridae) (e.g., Ceraclea fulva) are obligate sponge feeders. Some turtles (e.g., Emydura subglobosa in Australia) appear to feed almost exclusively on freshwater sponges. In marine habitats, sponges suffer significant pressure from specialist and generalist predators. The Caribbean seastar Oreaster reticulatus and Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) are voracious sponge predators in seagrass and reef habitats. Only xi species of fish (in a gut content survey of over 200 species) were found to eat sponges regularly. However, several common species that occur in relatively high densities had diets that included over 75% sponge fabric. Other organisms are known parasites of sponges and include, for instance, the well-known spongillaflies (Neuroptera: Sisyridae). The genera Climacia and Sisyra are the ii virtually normally found in N America.

Freshwater sponges are institute in a variety of habitats including streams, large rivers, and lentic systems. These sponges typically occur in shallow waters only some (e.g., those in Lake Baikal) occur at depths over 25   m. Relatively piddling work has been washed to survey sponge diversity in deeper portions of about lakes. Freshwater sponges tin oftentimes be constitute growing on submerged vegetation, rocks, and pilings. They are frequently found in shallow h2o at the base of dams on the undersides of hard surfaces. Freshwater sponges can range in size from small encrustations (<iii   cm2) to large mats over 1   g2 and branching structures that stretch 70   cm into the h2o column.

While sponges are involved in a diverseness of 'negative' ecological interactions (e.1000., competition and predation), they besides participate in many commensalistic and mutualistic associations that have community-wide consequences. Sponges harbor diverse and at times very dense microfloral communities in their tissues (see Symbiosis section). At the macroscopic level, sponges are ecosystem engineers because they create infinite used by various communities of invertebrates and some vertebrates. Indeed, the outset, and to engagement merely, case of eusociality among marine invertebrates was discovered in sponge-dwelling shrimp of the genus Synalpheus. Furthermore, sponges are of import from an ecosystems perspective because their manner of feeding (consuming ultraplankton and absorption of dissolved organic fabric) creates an important benthic–pelagic coupling point. Show suggests that sponges are a source of nitrogen to nitrogen-limited coral reefs.

One of the most intriguing aspects of sponge ecology deals with the extensive phenotypic plasticity observed in this group. Sponges are known to remodel their aquiferous arrangement in response to wave free energy or water currents. They likewise can increase or subtract spicule production in response to predation. The freshwater sponge Spongilla lacustris produces 3 morphologically distinct types of gemmules that differ based on the number of layers in the inner coat and the presence or absenteeism of zoochlorellar algal symbionts. This phenotypic variability tin lead to meaning taxonomic challenges and in that location is some prove that cryptic species are mutual. For case, a sponge found in the Mediterranean and throughout the Caribbean (Chondrilla nucula) was previously believed to stand for a unmarried, cosmopolitan species. Molecular evidence at present conspicuously demonstrates that C. nucula is a species complex with at least five distinct species that appear specialized for the habitats in which they reside.

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Biochemistry of Glycoconjugate Glycans; Sugar-Mediated Interactions

S. Itonori , K. Sugita , in Comprehensive Glycoscience, 2007

iii.15.iv.four Porifera

Sponges of Porifera, the simplest and earliest multicellular organisms, take been well studied as models for cell-recognition and adhesion mechanisms. Interestingly, carbohydrate self-recognition is involved in marine sponge cellular adhesion. 245 Sponges have long been recognized as a rich source of novel lipids including GSLs, hence numerous papers take been reported from diverse chemical and pharmacological research areas. Cerebroside-like glycolipid was constitute in the sea sponge, Halicloma aqueducta, Halichondria panacea, and Myxilla incrustans of Porifera. 243 A mixture of cerebrosides was isolated from the lipids of sea sponge, Chondrilla nucula, and GlcCer was characterized to contain long-chain bases and ii-hydroxy fat acids. 246 Cerebrosides were plant in the sponge, Chondropsis sp., and identified as Galβ1-Cer 247 and from Haliclona sp. and H. panicea equally Glcβ1-Cer (Table 7). 248,249 From Amphimedon viridis, GlcNα1-Cer and GlcNβ1-Cer were found and named as amphicerebrosides. 248 Digalactosylceramide was constitute in Halichondria japonica and characterized as Galα1-4Galβ1-Cer, using FAB-MS, IR, oneH-NMR analysis and chemical methods. 250

During screening of natural products for antitumor and immunostimulatory activities, peculiarly marine sponge, it was plant that GSL from an Okinawan sponge, Agelas mauritianus, showed high in vivo antitumor activity against murine B16 melanoma and enhanced the mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) in vitro. 251–255 This compound was named agelasphin GSL and is α-galactosylceramide, α-GalCer (Galα1-Cer); its synthetic analog is known as KRN7000. After testing of various synthetic analogs for biological activities, KRN7000 was found to be a stiff agent to stimulate Vα14NKT cells and was also identified as a ligand for invariant T-cell antigen receptor of Vα14NKT cell. 256–258 The ceramide components influence activities through modification of presentation by CD1d molecules; the synthetic analog has C26:0 fatty acid and phytosphingosine. 256,259 Numerous studies take been reported, which are summarized past excellent reviews, 260,261 specially focusing on the role of Galα1-Cer-reactive invariant NKT prison cell in decision-making autoimmune response, prevention of parasite infection, 262 and abortion. 263

The structural analysis of sponge GSLs has accompanied the investigation of their biological activities. There are antifungal activities of GlcNAcβCer from Halichondria cylindrata, 264 and immunostimulatory activities of di- and triglycosylceramides from four Agelas species, 265 Stylissa frabeliformis, and Axinella damicornis, 266 as well every bit nitric oxide release inhibitor action of triglycosylceramides from Aplysinella rhax. 267 Prenylated ((CHiii)twoC=CH–) GSLs featuring a cyclopropane-containing alkyl concatenation have been isolated from Ectyoplasia ferox and Plakortis simplex. 268,269 GlcβCer GSL is found in Iotrochota baculifera, 270 Galα1-6Glcβ1-Cer in Amphimedon sp., 271 Galα1-Cer-based GSLs in Agelas clathrodes 272 and A. damicornis 273 with diverse ceramide species. GSL structures of Porifera are summarized in Table 7.

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Phylum Porifera

Renata Manconi , Roberto Pronzato , in Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates (Fourth Edition), 2016

Introduction

The Earth Porifera Database (continuously updated on line) ( Van Soest et al., 2013) reports ∼8400 valid sponge species to appointment. Only few taxa, grouped in the society Spongillida Manconi & Pronzato, 2002, live in freshwater and stagnant habitats (see Manconi & Pronzato, 2015). Although taxonomic richness values are continuously under revision, there are currently 7 families, 47 genera, and 236 species distributed amidst six continents (all simply Antarctica). The Nearctic biogeographic region hosts 2 families, 14 genera, and 30 species (Fig. 3.1; Tabular array 3.i; Appendix 3.1), 17 of which are endemic (>50%). The highest number of shared species with other biogeographic regions is with the Palaearctic (thirteen species) followed by Neotropical (ten), Oriental (half dozen), and Afrotropical and Australian (5). No species are shared with the Pacific Oceanic Island Region.

Effigy 3.1. All Nearctic species of sponges. Synthetic representation of the spicular complements of Nearctic freshwater sponge species. Drawings were made from the about authoritative sources available. Dimension scales are most precise equally possible.

 Modified from Reiswig et al., 2010.

Table 3.one. Checklist and Geographic Range of Nearctic Freshwater Sponge Species

SPONGILLIDA Manconi &amp; Pronzato, 2002
Metaniidae Volkmer-Ribeiro, 1986
Corvomeyenia Weltner, 1913 NA-NT
∗ C. carolinensis Harrison 1971 NA
∗ C. everetti (Mills, 1884) NA
Spongillidae Gray, 1867
Anheteromeyenia Schröder, 1927 NA-NT
∗ A. argyrosperma (Potts, 1880) NA
Corvospongilla Annandale, 1911 PA-NA-NT-AT-OL
∗ C. becki Poirrier, 1978 NA
∗ C. novaeterrae (Potts, 1886) NA
Dosilia Gray, 1867 OL-AT-NA-NT
D. palmeri (Potts, 1885) NA-NT
∗ D. radiospiculata (Mills, 1888) NA
Duosclera Reiswig &amp; Ricciardi, 1993 NA
∗ D. mackayi (Carter, 1885) NA
Ephydatia Lamouroux, 1816 PA-NA-AT-OL-AU-NT-PAC
East. fluviatilis (Linnaeus, 1759) PA-NA-AT-OL-AU
∗ East. millsi (Potts, 1887) NA
East. muelleri (Lieberkuhn, 1855) PA-NA
∗ Eastward. subtilis Weltner, 1895 NA
Eunapius Gray, 1867 PA-AT-OL-AU-NA-NT
E. fragilis (Leidy, 1851) PA-NA-AT-NT-OL-AU
Heteromeyenia Potts, 1881 NA-PA-NT-AU-PAC
H. baileyi (Bowerbank, 1863) NA-PA-NT-PAC
∗ H. latitenta (Potts, 1881) NA
∗ H. longistylis Mills, 1884 NA
∗ H. tentasperma (Potts, 1880) NA
∗ H. tubisperma (Potts, 1881) NA
Pottsiela Volkmer-Ribeiro et al., 2010 NA-PA
P. aspinosa Potts, 1880 NA-PA
Racekiela Bass &amp; Volkmer-Ribeiro, 1998 PA-NA-NT
∗ R. biceps (Lindenschmidt, 1950) NA
R. ryderi (Potts, 1882) PA-NA-NT
Radiospongilla (Penney &amp; Racek, 1968) AU-PAC-NT-PA-AT-OL-NA
R. cerebellata (Bowerbank, 1863) AU-AT-OL-PA-NA
R. crateriformis (Potts, 1882) NA-NT-PA-AU-OL
Spongilla Lamarck, 1816 PA-NA-OL-AT-AU-NT
S. alba Carter, 1849 OL-AT-AU-NT-PA-NA
South. cenota Penney &amp; Racek, 1968 NT-NA
Due south. lacustris (Linnaeus, 1759) PA-NA
∗ S. wagneri Potts, 1889 NA
Stratospongilla Annandale, 1909 OL-AT-PA-AU-NA
∗ South. penneyi (Harrison, 1979) NA
Trochospongilla Vejdowsky, 1883 PA-NA-NT-OL-AU-AT
T. horrida (Weltner, 1893) PA-NA
T. leidyi (Bowerbank, 1863) NA-NT
∗ T. pennsylvanica (Potts, 1882) NA

∗Nearctic endemics. OL   =   Oriental Region; NA   =   Nearctic Region; PA   =   Palaearctic Region; AU   =   Australian Region; AT   =   Afrotropical Region; NT   =   Neotropical Region; PAC   =   Pacific Islands Region.

Despite the extreme rarity of some species of Spongillida, no species are currently protected by laws or international conventions in the Nearctic. No reliable information exist, due to the scarcity of studies, on the conservation condition of freshwater sponges despite their cardinal functional role in inland h2o ecosystems as both benthic active filter-feeders and equally natural mesocosms for other taxa.

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Chemic Ecology

Konrad Dettner , in Comprehensive Natural Products II, 2010

4.09.4 Cnidaria

Just as Porifera, the sessile, predatory, and often soft-bodied Cnidaria (9200 species) depend on offensive and defensive allomones for casualty capture and survival. This is also true for the modest group of freshwater species belonging to Hydrina (Capitata). The nematocyst venom of Hydra vulgaris has been reported to showroom strong neurotoxic and hemolytic activities and a phospholipatic activity similar to serpent venoms. 42 Venom fractionation revealed the presence of a high-molecular-weight (100–200   kDa) toxic cytolysin (a pore-forming substance), a toxic phospholipase, and a 30–100   kDa neurotoxin causing paralysis and death in Drosophila. By a bioinformatic approach in Hydra magnipapillata, orthologues of cnidarian phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxins and cytolysins were found, which belong to the actinoporin family. Hydra magnipapillata also expresses proteins similar to elapid-similar (elapid PLA2s) and Conus-similar phospholipases (Conus PLA2, conodipine-M), Well-baked proteins (cysteine-rich secretory protein: wasp venom antigen five), prokineticin-similar polypeptides, and toxic deoxyribonucleases. 42 In contrast, short-chain neurotoxins affecting sodium and potassium conductance were found to be absent-minded in H. magnipapillata. 42 From noncnidocystic origin, a paralysis-inducing neurotoxin was isolated from Chlorohydra viridissima. 43 The compound showed cytotoxic activities against insect cells just not against mammalian tissue. It was as well reported that polyps of the freshwater jelly-fish Craspedacusta produce toxins which may harm larvae of freshwater fishes and amphibians.

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Theories, Development, Invertebrates

R.A. Jenner , in Evolution of Nervous Systems, 2007

one.02.2.i Nonbilaterians and Acoelomorpha

Although the Porifera (sponges), Placozoa ( Trichoplax adhaerens), Cnidaria (e.m., jellyfish, sea anemones), and Ctenophora (comb jellies) are oft typified equally diploblasts, these earliest diverging nonbilaterian metazoans (Figures 1 and two) could inappreciably exist said to be characterized past the possession of a mutual trunk plan, nor could they be considered as members of a monophyletic clade. I therefore adopt to refer to them simply equally nonbilaterians. Although the precise evolutionary branching sequence of these groups is withal contentious (Rokas et al., 2003a), they probable course a class of arrangement (paraphyletic grouping) basal to the Bilateria. The morphological disparity betwixt these phyla spans an enormous range of body architectures, with the maximally simple placozoans at contrary extremes, with just four differentiated somatic cell types, and the cnidarians, of which some of the most complex forms, such equally cubozoans, possess differentiated muscle and nervous systems, and some remarkably complex sensory organs. The elucidation of the precise sequence of divergences of these taxa is therefore vital to agreement the assembly of more complex torso plans at the base of the Bilateria. All the same, all these groups are traditionally considered to lack bilateral symmetry.

Surprisingly, recent investigations have added another group to the base of operations of the Bilateria. The enigmatic, microscopical, and parasitic myxozoans were until very recently considered to be protozoans. However, recent advances in molecular phylogenetics and ultrastructural research have established their metazoan affinities, and their possible relationships to either the cnidarians or the Bilateria (Okamura and Canning, 2003; Zrzavy and Hypsa, 2003).

The earliest diverging unambiguously bilaterally symmetrical organisms appear to be the Acoelomorpha, comprising two taxa: Acoela and Nemertodermatida (Figures 1 and three). Previously considered to exist basal flatworms (Platyhelminthes), molecular data and a reinterpretation of available morphological prove instead suggest that these relatively unproblematic flatworm-similar organisms are the almost basally branching crown grouping bilaterians (Baguñà and Riutort, 2004). Consequently, the acoelomorphs are considered to be the sister group to the remaining bilaterians, the three main clades of which will be introduced beneath.

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An Updated Report on the Multifariousness of Marine Sponges of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

T. Immanuel , ... C. Raghunathan , in Marine Faunal Multifariousness in Bharat, 2015

Introduction

The phylum Porifera, commonly known as sponges, designates the most archaic of the multicellular animals (more 500 million years old) ( Müller, 1995), with a most ancient geological history. The sponges are a unique group of organisms: although multicellular they lack tissue course of structure (Bergquist, 1978). Most of them are sedentary or immobile as adults just possess mobile larval forms. These invertebrates do not have a nervous, digestive, or circulating system but rely on constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food, oxygen and to remove waste product. Sponges form an of import biotic component of the coral reef ecosystem (Reswig, 1973; Wulff, 2006) and constitute ane of the most abundant and diverse groups of marine benthic communities around the earth (Hartman, 1977). In fact they are more than diverse than corals in many coral reef ecosystems effectually the world (Diaz and Rützler, 2001; Wulff, 2006). They play several ecologically important roles, such as bounden live corals to the reef frame, facilitating regeneration of broken reefs, and harboring nitrifying and photosynthesizing microbial symbionts, or intervening in erosion processes (Diaz and Rützler, 2001; Wulff, 2001, 2006). Sponges take been the focus of much recent involvement, as they are a rich source of agile secondary metabolites (Bergmann and Feeney, 1950). Sponges account equally a source for around 37 percent of the biomedical compounds obtained from the marine environs worldwide (Jha and Zi-rong, 2004).

The coral reefs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI) are amongst the most diverse, but as well well-nigh threatened reefs in the world. Accurate baseline studies on the constituent taxa and their environmental conditions volition aid in conservation and management of the reefs (Mora et al., 2003). Study of spatial and seasonal variations in environmental parameters is essential for an understanding of how the environmental processes collaborate to construct the marine assemblages. Sponges are one of the least studied of the major phyla of the ANI. The continental shelf of the islands plays host to large areas of coral reefs which harbor rich Poriferan diversity. Studies describe 88 species of sponges from the ANI (Box one.ane and Figure 1.1); however, details of these sedentary invertebrates are very scanty. Though works on the diverseness of sponges in Andaman engagement dorsum to deep water scientific voyages in 1902, studies since and so have been very scanty, and shallow water sponges from the ANI have non been thoroughly studied. This study is intended to bridge this scientific gap by documenting the rich diversity of marine sponges in these islands, peculiarly in the coral reefs.

Box 1.1

Checklist of Sponges Described every bit from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1.

Cinachyrella arabica (Carter, 1869)

two.

Cinachyrella tarentina (Pulitzer-Finali, 1983)

iii.

Paratetilla bacca (Selenka, 1867)

4.

Craniella cranium (Muller, 1776)

5.

Tetilla dactyloidea (Carter, 1869)

half-dozen.

Ecionemia acervus (Bowerbank, 1864)

7.

Stelletta clavosa (Ridley, 1884)

eight.

Stelletta purpurea (Ridley, 1884)

nine.

Stelletta cavernosa (Dendy, 1910)

ten.

Stelletta orientalis (Thiele, 1898)

11.

Stelletta validissima (Thiele, 1898)

12.

Rhabdastrella globostellata (Carter, 1883)

13.

Erylus lendenfeldi (Sollas, 1888)

14.

Dercitus (Stoeba) simplex (Carter, 1880)

15.

Poecillastra eccentrica (Dendy &amp; Burton, 1926)

16.

Poecillastra tenuilaminaris (Sollas, 1886)

17.

Thenea andamanensis (Dendy &amp; Burton, 1926)

xviii.

Cliona ensifera (Sollas, 1878)

19.

Cliona kempi (Annandale, 1915)

twenty.

Cliona lobata (Hancock, 1849)

21.

Cliona mucronata (Sollas, 1878)

22.

Cliothosa quadrata (Hancock, 1849)

23.

Cliothosa hancocki (Topsent, 1888)

24.

Pione vastifica (Hancock, 1849)

25.

Pione carpenteri (Hancock, 1867)

26.

Spirastrella andamanensis (Pattanayak, 2006)

27.

Spheciospongia inconstans (Dendy, 1887)

28.

Tethya andamanensis (Dendy &amp; Burton, 1926)

29.

Tethya diploderma (Schmidt, 1870)

xxx.

Tethya repens (Schmidt, 1870)

31.

Tethya robusta (Bowerbank, 1873)

32.

Discodermia gorgonoides (Burton, 1928)

33.

Discodermia papillata (Carter, 1880)

34.

Theonella swinhoei (Gray, 1868)

35.

Leiodermatium pfeifferae (Carter, 1876)

36.

Damiria toxifera (van Soest, Zea &amp; Kielman, 1994)

37.

Clathria (Microciona) atrasanguinea (Bowerbank, 1862)

38.

Clathria (Thalysias) vulpina (Lamarck, 1814)

39.

Echinochalina (Echinochalina) barba (Lamarck, 1813)

twoscore.

Echinodictyum asperum (Ridley &amp; Dendy, 1886)

41.

Raspailia (Raspailia) viminalis (Schmidt, 1862)

42.

Rhabderemia prolifera (Annandale, 1915)

43.

Monanchora enigmatica (Burton &amp; Rao, 1932)

44.

Kirkpatrickia spiculophila (Burton &amp; Rao, 1932)

45.

Psammochela elegans (Dendy, 1916)

46.

Damiriopsis brondstedi (Burton, 1928)

47.

Iotrochota baculifera (Ridley, 1884)

48.

Tedania (Tedania) anhelans (Lieberkühn, 1859)

49.

Biemna liposigma (Burton, 1928)

fifty.

Biemna tubulata (Dendy, 1905)

51.

Mycale (Rhaphidotheca) coronata (Dendy, 1926)

52.

Mycale (Aegogropila) crassissima (Dendy, 1905)

53.

Mycale (Mycale) indica (Carter, 1887)

54.

Auletta andamanensis (Pattanayak, 2006)

55.

Axinella acanthelloides (Pattanayak, 2006)

56.

Axinella tenuidigitata (Dendy, 1905)

57.

Phakellia columnata (Burton, 1928)

58.

Amorphinopsis foetida (Dendy, 1889)

59.

Petromica (Petromica) massalis (Dendy, 1905)

60.

Spongosorites andamanensis Pattanayak, 2006)

61.

Topsentia halichondrioides (Dendy, 1905)

62.

Haliclona (Gellius) flagellifera (Ridley and Dendy, 1886)

63.

Haliclona (Gellius) megastoma (Burton, 1928)

64.

Gelliodes fibulata (Carter, 1881)

65.

Calyx clavata (Burton, 1928)

66.

Xestospongia testudinaria (Lamarck, 1815)

67.

Carteriospongia foliascens (Pallas, 1766)

68.

Clathrina coriacea (Montagu, 1818)

69.

Pericharax heteroraphis (Poléjaeff, 1883)

seventy.

Hyalonema (Ijimaonema) aculeatum (Schulze, 1895)

71.

Hyalonema (Hyalonema) sieboldii (Gray, 1835)

72.

Hyalonema (Coscinonema) indicum (Schulze, 1895)

73.

Hyalonema (Coscinonema) lamella (Schulze, 1900)

74.

Hyalonema (Cyliconema) martabanense (Schulze, 1900)

75.

Hyalonema (Cyliconema) masoni (Schulze, 1895)

76.

Hyalonema (Cyliconema) nicobaricum (Schulze, 1904)

77.

Hyalonema (Cyliconema) rapa (Schulze, 1900)

78.

Hyalonema (Cyliconema) apertum apertum (Schulze, 1886)

79.

Lophophysema inflatum (Schulze, 1900)

80.

Pheronema raphanus (Schulze, 1895)

81.

Semperella cucumis (Schulze, 1895)

82.

Aphrocallistes beatrix (Gray, 1858)

83.

Farrea occa (Bowerbank, 1862)

84.

Tretodictyum small-scale (Dendy &amp; Burton, 1926)

85.

Euplectella aspergillum (Owen, 1841)

86.

Euplectella aspergillum regalis (Schulze, 1900)

87.

Euplectella simplex (Schulze, 1896)

88.

Lophocalyx spinosa (Schulze, 1900)

Effigy ane.1. Sponges of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

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Littoral and Marine Biodiversity of India

K. Venkataraman , C. Raghunathan , in Marine Faunal Diversity in Republic of india, 2015

Porifera

The phylum Porifera, commonly known every bit sponges ( Effigy 19.6), are the most archaic of the multicellular animals and have existed on earth for more than than 700–800 meg years. Information technology is interesting to note that sponges had managed to conceal their true animate being nature for several centuries amid the evolutionary changes. Some workers even considered them to be houses of nonliving thing secreted by worms. Robert Grant in 1826 was the first to recognize and prove that sponges are animals. Sponges occur from the intertidal region to the deepest part of the ocean at 2000 to 8840 k. Approximately 15 chiliad species of sponge are known across the world, most of them found in the marine surround whereas but about one percent of the species inhabit freshwater. However, there are a total of 8424 valid species identified to date and however several more waiting for identification in several museum collections, besides as the unexplored seas. In fact, they are more diverse than scleractin corals in coral reef ecosystems effectually the world. Sponges play a major role in the coral ecosystem, such every bit in facilitating regeneration of broken reefs and binding alive coral to the reef frame. Sponges are broadly classified into iii classes: Demospongiae, Calcarea and Hexactinellidae, of which the Demospongiae is the most diverse class containing more than 85 percent of the sponges identified to date. About of the studies of marine sponges in India were carried out on the Gulf of Mannar, Kerala coast, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kachchh and Gulf of Cambay. So far, 486 species nether 3 classes, 17 orders, 65 families and 169 genera accept been described in Bharat (Thomas, 1998). The sponge fauna of India is dominated past species of Desmospongia, followed by those of Hyalospongiae and Calciospongiae. Also 34 species of coral-deadening sponges (20 from Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, five from Andaman and Nicobar Islands and 18 from Lakshadweep reefs) take been recorded. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay region has the highest variety (319 species), followed by Lakshadweep (82 species) and Gulf of Kachchh (25 species). In gild to assess the status and diverseness of sponges, the Zoological Survey of India has conducted extensive underwater surveys employing SCUBA diving along the coral reef areas of Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago from 2008 to 2013 at the area between the intertidal region and 40 metres. As a event of surveys a total of 114 species of sponge were identified in the coral reef ecosystem of these islands. Of these, 26 species are new records to Indian waters. And then far, only 400 Calcarean sponges take been identified from world oceans. Of these, in Indian waters, only 9 species of Calcarean sponges were reported; among them, 6 species from Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts, 2 species from Andaman and one species from Gulf of Mannar were identified. All 9 species of calcarean sponges are protected nether Schedule III category of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Effigy nineteen.6. Sponges

(a) Paratetilla bacca; (b) Xestospongia testudinaria.

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Marine sponges: source of novel biotechnological substances

Donat-P. Häder , in Natural Bioactive Compounds, 2021

xviii.1 Introduction

Sponges (Porifera) are the virtually primitive multicellular animals that practice not take true tissues or organs ( Fig. 18.1). Their fossil record goes back more than than 500 million years showing linkages to bacterial mats [1]. They are institute in all marine ecosystems from the tropical, temperate, and polar regions and they settle on all kinds of substrates (Fig. xviii.2). There are virtually 9000 described species and almost twice equally many are causeless to exist, which are non nevertheless reported. They can be divided into three classes, that is, Calcarea with five orders and 24 families, Demospongiae with 15 orders and 92 families, and Hexactinellida with vi orders and 20 families [ii]. Nearly marine sponges live in littoral benthic communities and are responsible for forming their habitats. Sponges have several ecological functions in the body of water including erosion, reef building, and stabilization [three]. They are involved in carbon, silicon, nitrogen, and oxygen cycling. Associations with other organisms provide enhanced predation protection, survival, and camouflage. Sponges are oft linked with symbiotic leaner. These bacteria include cyanobacteria and chemoautotrophic bacteria that supply stock-still carbon and nitrogen to their hosts [iv]. The symbiotic associations benefit both partners as they facilitate the nutrient conquering, removal of metabolic waste product, synthesis of secondary metabolites, and stabilization of the sponge skeleton [5]. More than 25 bacterial phyla have been isolated from sponges including the new phylum Poribacteria, many of which are symbiotic and involved in denitrification and anaerobic ammonium oxidation [6]. Using 16S rRNA gene technology, the microbial variety has been analyzed in the sponges Aplysina aerophoba (Verongida), Rhopaloeides odorabile (Dicytoceratida), and Theonella swinhoei (Lithistida) selected every bit model systems, which have recently been used for cultivation, revealing the presence of numerous leaner including cyanobacteria [7]. In add-on, several viruses take been identified.

Effigy xviii.1. Sponges do non develop typical tissues but are composed of intertwined, connected cells. On the surface of the cells epiphytes such as diatoms can be seen.

Figure 18.2. Sponges settle on all kinds of soft or hard substrata, here on the rim of an ancient Greek amphora.

The surprisingly high number of bioactive chemicals in sponges can be considered as a chemical defence force of these filter feeders against predators and overgrowth [eight]. This notion is supported by the fact that the highest number of these substances is found in crowded habitats with a loftier number of competing species such as tropical reefs. In improver, these substances are besides the most toxic ones found in sponges. As a consequence, this chemical defense is very effective against many fish species and nudibranchs.

Several species of the genus Aplysina fulva accept been establish to produce sulfated polysaccharides identified by anion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography [9]. These substances turned out to be sulfated polysaccharides with a structure resembling glycogen, equanimous of galactose, fucose, arabinose, and hexuronic acrid residues some of which carry the sulfur. Other mutual sponges, institute in Caribbean coral reefs, accept been found to accumulate polyphosphates in the form of granules in the sponge cells equally shown by energy-dispersive spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy [10]. These sponges contain symbiotic cyanobacteria that have been isolated and cultivated. It could be shown that the sponge Dna contains polyphosphate kinase genes and that these genes are expressed. These findings signal that sponges and their symbionts play a major part in phosphorous cycling in the oceans [11].

Considering of the growing interest in the biotechnological production of sponge-derived substances, commercial cultivation of these organisms has been developed improving the growth conditions to optimize the biomass product output [12]. Based on the original methods for growing commercial bath sponges, unfiltered natural seawater has been used (Fig. 18.3). This was followed by semicontrolled atmospheric condition equally completely controlled growth conditions for in vitro cultivation did not requite satisfactory results. I of the most important factors was the food supply. To overcome these obstacles, sponge cell cultures that tin be easily controlled and optimized for the target chemicals take been employed. As some of the metabolites are synthesized by endosymbiotic bacteria or algae rather than the sponge cells themselves, several attempts have been undertaken to cultivate the symbionts; but the number of successful cultivations is still limited.

Effigy 18.3. Common bath sponge harvested in the Mediterranean.

Another group of bacteria is known as "sponge-associated unclassified lineage" (SAUL) frequently found in sponges [xiii]. Contempo genetic analysis indicated that this phylogenetically enigmatic clade is related to the phylum "Latescibacteria" as shown past 16S rRNA gene-based phylogeny and comparing of mark protein sequences. Further analysis revealed that the SAUL bacteria are facultative anaerobic organisms that degrade carbohydrates derived from sponges and algae. They likewise synthesize polyphosphate granules that can serve as a reserve for their host.

Sponges were even found useful in retrieving copper and metal nanoparticles from electronic waste [14]. Leaner isolated from the marine sponge Hymeniacidon heliophila are capable of bioleaching. The rod-shaped Bacillus spec. was the most agile strain. It has a temperature optimum at 30°C for copper and at twoscore°C metal nanoparticles were accumulated inside the cells. The bacteria course a crust on the electronic waste fragments. The bacterial surface consisted generally of iron as shown past SEM-EDS measurements. The copper was institute to be linked to macrocyclic surfactin-like peptides resembling iturin, a lipopeptide isolated from Bacillus subtilis. Thus, this bacterium may have corking potential in copper recovery from electronic waste matter.

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Comparative Reproduction

Alexander V. Ereskovsky , in Encyclopedia of Reproduction (2d Edition), 2018

Abstract

Sponges (phylum Porifera) branch basally in the metazoan phylogenetic tree. That is why the information on the reproduction must be accumulated and compared betwixt the sponge lineages and eumetazoans in club to empathize the early evolution of this processes in animals. The purpose of this affiliate is to prove the state of cognition of sponge reproduction. Both gonochorism and hermaphroditism also as viviparity and oviparity occur in sponges. In spite of absence of the gonads, sexual reproduction includes gametogenesis (spermatogenesis and oogenesis), embryonic evolution, larval, and postlarval (metamorphosis) morphogenesis. Asexual reproduction may proceed past fragmentation, budding and gemmulogenesis. The influence of factors associated with environmental atmospheric condition on sponge reproduction discuss in this paper.

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